How to Get Dummy Text in Indesign?

Adobe InDesign is a powerful tool widely used by designers for creating professional layouts, whether for magazines, brochures, digital publications, or other visual media. One common need when designing layouts is to fill text areas with placeholder text, also known as dummy text. This serves as a stand-in for the final content and allows designers to visualize how text will appear on the page without requiring the actual content.

Dummy text, such as the classic Lorem Ipsum, is invaluable for several reasons. It helps designers plan and adjust elements like text size, font, spacing, and alignment within a layout. Using dummy text early on in a design project provides a clear idea of how the finished product will look, making it easier to spot issues with layout flow and readability before the final content is ready.

In this article, we’ll walk through various methods to insert dummy text into your InDesign projects, including using InDesign’s built-in tools and external resources. Whether you’re creating a book, a flyer, or a website mockup, knowing how to insert dummy text will enhance your workflow and allow you to focus on design without being constrained by incomplete content.

What is Dummy Text, and Why Use It in InDesign?

Dummy text, often represented by the classic Lorem Ipsum, is a type of placeholder text used in design and typesetting. This text is typically nonsensical Latin, originating from a scrambled section of Cicero’s writings, used to simulate how real text will appear in a layout. While Lorem Ipsum is the most popular form of dummy text, other varieties exist, offering different structures, languages, and word patterns.

Why Designers Rely on Dummy Text

Using dummy text is crucial in the design world, especially during the initial stages of a project. It allows designers to create layouts without needing actual content, which is often not finalized at the start. Here are some key reasons why designers rely on dummy text:

• Visualizing Layout and Structure: Dummy text helps designers envision the look and flow of the layout, ensuring a balanced design without distraction from actual content. This is especially useful for establishing text-heavy sections.
• Testing Text Placement and Alignment: Designers can experiment with different placements, font sizes, and styles. By adjusting these with dummy text, they achieve a cohesive and visually appealing structure before replacing the placeholders with real content.
• Presenting a Draft to Clients or Team Members: Using dummy text allows designers to show a polished draft, giving clients a better idea of the design direction. Clients can focus on the layout without being sidetracked by incomplete or incorrect content.
• Identifying Potential Design Challenges Early: By using dummy text, any issues with text spacing, line breaks, or paragraph alignment become apparent. This saves time by allowing designers to address these issues in the early stages.

Types of Dummy Text in InDesign

InDesign provides several options for dummy text, with Lorem Ipsum being the default. However, there are other options, such as using custom placeholder text to better fit the tone or look of a specific design. Designers may even choose to import industry-specific jargon or custom phrases as placeholders to make the draft more realistic.

In summary, dummy text plays a critical role in the design process. It supports designers in visualizing the full layout, experimenting with styles, and presenting a professional draft even when real content is not yet available.

Methods to Insert Dummy Text in InDesign

In Adobe InDesign, inserting dummy text is quick and straightforward. There are multiple ways to add placeholder text to your layout, each offering different levels of customization. Below, we’ll go over the main methods you can use to insert dummy text in your InDesign projects, ranging from built-in features to importing text from external sources.

A. Using InDesign’s Built-In “Fill with Placeholder Text” Feature

InDesign offers a simple built-in feature called Fill with Placeholder Text that automatically fills a text frame with Lorem Ipsum dummy text. This is the quickest and most straightforward method, ideal for when you just need some placeholder text to visualize your layout.

Steps to Insert Dummy Text Using “Fill with Placeholder Text”:

1. Create a Text Frame: Start by selecting the Type Tool (T) from the toolbar. Click and drag to create a text frame where you want the dummy text to appear.
2. Fill the Text Frame: With the text frame selected, go to the Type menu at the top of the screen and choose Fill with Placeholder Text. Alternatively, you can use the keyboard shortcut Shift + Ctrl/Cmd + Alt + L (Windows/Mac).
3. Adjust Text: InDesign will automatically populate the text frame with Lorem Ipsum text. From here, you can adjust the font, size, color, and alignment to fit your design needs.

Customization Options:

• Language: InDesign allows you to adjust the language of the placeholder text. By default, it will generate text in English, but you can change it to another language, such as Spanish or French, to better match your design project.
• Font & Size: You can customize the font and size of the dummy text to match the final design you are aiming for. Use this feature to get a more accurate preview of your layout.

This method is perfect for quickly inserting placeholder text into your design, whether you’re working on a flyer, magazine, or website mockup.

B. Importing Dummy Text from External Sources

Sometimes you might need more control over the type of dummy text you use, or you may want to import larger amounts of text for testing. InDesign gives you the flexibility to copy and paste text from external sources, such as text files or online generators.

Steps to Import Dummy Text from External Sources:

1. Generate Dummy Text Online: If you need more than just Lorem Ipsum, there are many free online Lorem Ipsum generators, such as lipsum.com or generator.loremipum.net, that can create varying lengths of placeholder text, including specific paragraph formats or word counts.
2. Copy the Text: Once you’ve generated the text, simply copy it from the online tool or from a text document.
3. Paste into InDesign: Go back to your InDesign document and select the text frame where you want to place the text. Paste the copied dummy text into the frame (Ctrl/Cmd + V).
4. Adjust the Formatting: After pasting the text, you can modify the font, size, alignment, and any other text properties to suit your design.

This method is beneficial if you want more control over the placeholder content, or if you prefer to have dummy text with different lengths or variations that may be closer to the eventual content.

C. Using Adobe Stock and Other Online Resources for Dummy Content

If you want to make your design look more polished or professional early on, Adobe Stock and other online resources can provide pre-made templates with professionally formatted dummy text. This method is especially helpful if you are working on a project that requires a large amount of text in different styles.

Steps to Use Adobe Stock for Dummy Text:

1. Search for Templates: Within InDesign, go to the Adobe Stock panel (Window > Extensions > Adobe Stock). Use keywords like “dummy text” or “Lorem Ipsum” to search for templates that include formatted placeholder text.
2. Download a Template: Choose a template that fits your project needs and click on it to download. These templates often come with pre-inserted dummy text in different sections, helping you visualize the layout quickly.
3. Modify the Text: You can replace the placeholder text with your actual content later, but for now, you can adjust the formatting, font, and other design elements to fit your needs.

This method is particularly beneficial for larger projects where a consistent layout is required across multiple pages, such as brochures, magazines, or newsletters. It gives you both a design and text structure that you can customize.

Customizing Dummy Text in InDesign

While inserting dummy text into your InDesign layout is a great first step, customizing it can help you better visualize how the final design will look. Customizing your placeholder text can enhance the overall feel of your layout and ensure that you’re testing the design under realistic conditions, especially when adjusting typography, spacing, and alignment.

InDesign offers several tools for customizing dummy text, including font changes, size adjustments, and fine-tuning alignment. Here’s how to make the most of your placeholder text and ensure it fits your design vision.

Adjusting Font, Size, and Style

One of the first customizations you might want to make to your dummy text is adjusting the font, size, and style. This allows you to simulate the actual content and see how different typefaces look in your layout.

Steps to Customize Font and Size:

1. Select the Text Frame: Click on the text frame containing your dummy text to select it.
2. Change the Font: Highlight the text and open the Character panel (Window > Type & Tables > Character). From here, you can choose a new font from the drop-down menu. You can also adjust the weight (bold, italic), style, and other font settings.
3. Adjust the Size: While still in the Character panel, you can change the size of the text to suit your layout. Simply enter a new value in the font size box or use the up and down arrows to adjust it incrementally.
4. Fine-Tune Other Settings: You can also adjust the line spacing (leading), tracking (spacing between characters), and kerning (spacing between specific pairs of characters) for more precise control over the text.

Customizing font and size helps you visualize the final look of the design and ensures that your layout will hold up well with real content, especially if you’re working with varying font styles and sizes.

Adjusting Alignment and Spacing

Proper alignment and spacing are essential for creating clean, readable layouts. With dummy text in place, you can experiment with different alignment settings to determine how the text will work within your design.

Steps to Adjust Alignment and Spacing:

1. Text Alignment: With the text frame selected, you can change the alignment of the text using the options in the Paragraph panel (Window > Type & Tables > Paragraph). You can choose between left-aligned, right-aligned, centered, or justified text, depending on how you want it to appear in the layout.
2. Adjust Paragraph Spacing: The Paragraph panel also lets you control the space before and after each paragraph. This is useful for ensuring that your text doesn’t appear too cramped or too spaced out. To adjust these settings, use the Space Before and Space After fields in the panel.
3. Line Spacing (Leading): To adjust the line spacing between each line of text, open the Character panel and change the leading value. This helps ensure that text flows evenly and is easy to read.
4. Text Indentation: If your design requires indented text (e.g., for body paragraphs or quotes), you can adjust the indentation settings in the Paragraph panel. This helps to visually organize the text.

By customizing alignment and spacing, you ensure that the text aligns with the rest of the design elements, creating a harmonious and balanced layout. Properly spaced text improves readability and ensures that your design flows smoothly.

Using Styles for Dummy Text

For larger projects or those requiring more complex text structures, using styles in InDesign can save a lot of time. Character styles and paragraph styles allow you to apply consistent formatting across multiple instances of text, helping you maintain a uniform look throughout your layout.

Steps to Apply and Create Text Styles:

1. Create a Paragraph Style: Select the text you want to format and go to the Paragraph Styles panel (Window > Styles > Paragraph Styles). Click the Create New Style button at the bottom of the panel, then name your style and set up the formatting (font, size, leading, alignment, etc.).
2. Apply the Style: After creating the style, you can easily apply it to other text frames in your document. Just select the text, then click on the desired style in the Paragraph Styles panel.
3. Character Styles for Specific Text: If you want to format specific characters (e.g., bold or italicized text) within a paragraph, you can use the Character Styles panel (Window > Styles > Character Styles). Create a new character style for specific text attributes and apply it to any selected text.

Using styles ensures that your dummy text maintains consistency throughout your project. This method is particularly helpful in larger documents, such as books or magazines, where uniformity is key.

Customizing Dummy Text for Specific Design Needs

In some cases, you may want your dummy text to look more like the actual content that will eventually appear in the design. For example, if you’re designing a magazine layout, you might want your dummy text to reflect a specific type of language or jargon used in the publication.

Steps to Customize Dummy Text for Specific Content:

1. Use Custom Text: If you don’t want to use Lorem Ipsum, you can replace it with text that mimics the type of content you’ll be including. For example, you could use a business email template for an office newsletter design or a recipe for a food magazine layout.
2. Import Custom Dummy Text: As discussed earlier, you can import any text from external sources, including custom paragraphs, industry terms, or even multilingual text. Paste it directly into your text frame and adjust the formatting as needed.

Tips for Efficient Use of Dummy Text in Design Projects

While using dummy text in InDesign is essential for creating layouts and visualizing your design, it’s important to use it effectively and efficiently. Here are some practical tips for maximizing the benefits of dummy text without compromising your workflow or design quality.

1. Don’t Overload Your Layout with Dummy Text

It’s easy to get carried away when using dummy text, especially when filling multiple text boxes or pages. However, overloading your design with placeholder text can lead to unnecessary clutter and may distract from the layout’s key elements.

• Focus on Key Sections: Use dummy text strategically in the sections where text will play a significant role, such as body copy, captions, or headings. For other parts of the layout, such as images or navigation elements, consider leaving them blank or filling them with simple placeholders like [image placeholder] to avoid visual confusion.
• Limit Text Length: While Lorem Ipsum can be generated in different lengths, it’s wise to avoid using overly long blocks of text. Instead, use smaller, more manageable chunks that help you visualize the design without overwhelming the page. This also makes it easier to adjust text and fine-tune the layout.

2. Keep Your Dummy Text Consistent

Consistency in formatting and style is key when working with dummy text. Inconsistent typography and styles can lead to confusion and may affect your ability to spot layout issues. Here’s how to keep things consistent:

• Use Paragraph and Character Styles: As discussed in the previous section, creating and applying paragraph and character styles for your dummy text ensures that the design elements are uniform across the entire layout. This is especially helpful when working on long documents or projects with multiple text frames.
• Stick to One Type of Placeholder Text: Try to avoid mixing different styles of placeholder text (e.g., Lorem Ipsum, custom text, or different language variants) unless it’s absolutely necessary. Keeping the text type consistent helps you focus on design issues, rather than getting distracted by variations in the text itself.

3. Adjust Text to Match the Expected Content

One of the advantages of using dummy text is that you can adjust it to reflect the type of content you’ll be working with. Doing this can give you a better sense of how your design will look once it’s filled with actual content.

• Reflect Content Structure: If you’re designing for a magazine or website, for example, adjust your dummy text to mimic the structure of actual content. This could mean using headings, subheadings, and bullet points to simulate real editorial layouts. This helps ensure the layout functions properly when real content is added.
• Use Realistic Text Lengths: While Lorem Ipsum is great for getting a general sense of the layout, using more realistic text lengths—such as actual product descriptions, headlines, or article summaries—will provide a more accurate representation of the final result. This also helps you visualize how much space the content will occupy and if any adjustments are necessary.

4. Test Your Layout With Various Text Amounts

Different projects require different amounts of text, from short promotional copy to long-form articles or even books. Testing your layout with various amounts of dummy text can help you identify potential issues with spacing, margins, and overall readability.

• Simulate Various Content Lengths: Experiment with adding different amounts of dummy text—short, medium, and long paragraphs—to see how the layout handles various content sizes. This practice helps ensure your design adapts well to different text lengths and maintains a professional appearance throughout.
• Adjust for Overflow Text: Sometimes, long blocks of text may overflow beyond the text box or frame. Test your layout with overflowing dummy text to ensure that your design can accommodate this, whether by adding a new page, adjusting the margins, or using text boxes that automatically flow content.

5. Replace Dummy Text as Soon as Possible

Dummy text is a tool for design purposes, but it’s crucial to replace it with the actual content as soon as it becomes available. Leaving Lorem Ipsum or other placeholder text in your final design can make the project appear unfinished or unprofessional.

• Double-Check Before Finalizing: Before you hand off the design to clients, collaborators, or publishers, make sure to replace all instances of dummy text with real content. This ensures that your layout is both complete and accurate, and it also gives a more polished presentation.
• Replace Gradually: If you’re working on a large project, such as a magazine or multi-page brochure, consider replacing dummy text gradually as content becomes available. This lets you maintain a smooth workflow while ensuring the text is replaced correctly throughout the entire document.

6. Leverage Multiple Text Frame Options

InDesign allows you to link multiple text frames together, which is especially useful when working with long text blocks. You can link text frames so that the dummy text flows from one frame to the next, giving you a more realistic preview of how your content will be distributed across pages.

• Link Text Frames: To link text frames, simply click on the red plus sign (+) that appears when a frame becomes overfilled with text. Then, click on another text frame to link them together. This will allow the dummy text to flow continuously across the linked frames.
• Automatic Text Flow: InDesign also offers an option for automatic text flow (Window > Type & Tables > Text Variables), which allows you to apply dummy text across multiple pages with ease. This feature is particularly helpful for longer documents with repeating sections, such as newsletters or catalogs.

Common Mistakes to Avoid When Using Dummy Text in InDesign

While dummy text is an invaluable tool for designers, it’s important to be mindful of common mistakes that can hinder the effectiveness of your layout. Here are some of the most frequent mistakes that designers make when using placeholder text in InDesign—and how to avoid them.

1. Using Too Much Dummy Text

One of the most common mistakes designers make is using too much dummy text in their layouts. It can be tempting to fill every space with text to see how everything fits, but overloading your design with placeholder content can create clutter and distract from the design itself.

How to Avoid This:

• Use dummy text selectively in areas where it will have the most impact, such as in large text blocks or for sections where the amount of content is uncertain.
• Keep text lengths reasonable—just enough to simulate real content without overwhelming the layout. This allows you to focus on design elements without getting lost in unnecessary text.

2. Forgetting to Replace Dummy Text with Real Content

Many designers get so used to working with dummy text that they forget to replace it with the actual content once it becomes available. Leaving Lorem Ipsum or placeholder text in your final layout can make your design look unfinished or unprofessional, especially when presenting the design to clients or stakeholders.

How to Avoid This:

• Keep track of sections with dummy text and make sure to replace them as soon as the real content is ready.
• Double-check every page of your design to ensure that all placeholder text has been replaced before finalizing the document.

3. Using Inconsistent Dummy Text

Inconsistent placeholder text can confuse the design process and make it harder to spot layout problems. For example, switching between different types of placeholder text (e.g., Lorem Ipsum, custom text, or multi-language text) in different sections of the same document can disrupt the visual flow.

How to Avoid This:

• Stick to one type of dummy text throughout your layout. If you use Lorem Ipsum, try to keep it consistent across all text frames.
• If you want variety in your dummy text, consider using different lengths or paragraph structures, but maintain the same placeholder text type.

4. Ignoring Text Flow and Overflow

When using multiple text frames or columns, designers may fail to properly manage text overflow, resulting in awkward gaps or text spilling over beyond the frame. This can break the flow of the layout and make it difficult to get an accurate sense of how the design will work with real content.

How to Avoid This:

• Use linked text frames to allow content to flow naturally across multiple sections of the page. This is especially useful for longer content that needs to be spread across multiple columns or pages.
• Check for text overflow by looking for the red plus sign (+) in the text box, which indicates that the text has overflowed the frame. Adjust the frame size or link the frame to another to resolve this issue.

5. Not Adjusting the Text to Match the Final Content

Dummy text is useful for layout purposes, but if you don’t adjust it to match the final content, you could miss out on important design elements. For instance, if you’re designing for a magazine or a website, you might want your placeholder text to reflect headings, subheadings, or bulleted lists to get a better sense of how real content will fit.

How to Avoid This:

• Modify your dummy text to reflect the structure of the actual content. For instance, create placeholder headings, subheadings, bullet points, or numbered lists to replicate how real content will be organized.
• Use text of varying lengths to simulate different content formats, such as short promotional copy or longer articles. This helps you see how your layout works with both short and long text blocks.

6. Not Accounting for Text Adjustments

One of the challenges of using dummy text is ensuring that your layout can adapt to different text sizes or font choices. If your text frames or columns are too rigid, they may not adjust properly when you replace the dummy text with real content, especially if the final content varies in length or formatting.

How to Avoid This:

• Leave enough flexibility in your layout by ensuring that text boxes can grow or shrink with content. Use the Auto-Size text box option in InDesign to allow the text box to automatically adjust based on the text size.
• Test your design with various amounts of dummy text to see how the layout adapts to both small and large content. Adjust the frame sizes, margins, and spacing to ensure your layout can accommodate content of different lengths and formats.

7. Not Checking for Alignment or Spacing Issues

Another mistake when using dummy text is failing to notice alignment or spacing issues, especially in large documents. While dummy text might appear to fill the space well, small issues like inconsistent line spacing or misaligned text can become more apparent once real content is inserted.

How to Avoid This:

• Regularly review the alignment and spacing of your text to make sure it looks clean and consistent. Use the Align and Distribute tools in InDesign to ensure that text and other elements are evenly spaced and aligned.
• Adjust line spacing (leading) and character spacing (tracking) as needed to improve readability and create a balanced layout.

8. Relying Too Heavily on Dummy Text for Final Design Decisions

While dummy text is excellent for initial design work, it should not be relied on too heavily when making final design decisions. Real content may differ significantly from placeholder text, especially in terms of language, length, and tone.

How to Avoid This:

• Whenever possible, work with actual content in the later stages of your design process to ensure that your layout works with real text.
• Be prepared to make adjustments as needed when the final content is ready. Your design may require slight tweaks to accommodate changes in text length or formatting.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Using Dummy Text in InDesign

InDesign users often have several questions about working with dummy text. Below are some of the most common queries and their answers to help you make the most of placeholder text in your design projects.

1. What is Dummy Text in InDesign?

Answer:
Dummy text in InDesign is placeholder text used to fill empty text frames in a design layout. It helps designers visualize how text will fit into the layout and allows them to focus on design elements without worrying about the actual content. Common examples of dummy text include Lorem Ipsum, which is a scrambled version of Latin used for centuries, and other custom-generated or imported text.

2. How Do I Generate Dummy Text in InDesign?

Answer:
You can generate dummy text in InDesign using the Type menu. Simply follow these steps:

• Create a text box using the Type Tool (T).
• Go to the Type menu and select Fill with Placeholder Text. This will insert Lorem Ipsum text into the selected text frame. Alternatively, you can press Shift + Ctrl + Alt + L (Windows) or Shift + Command + Option + L (Mac) for a quicker shortcut.

3. Can I Use My Own Text as Dummy Text?

Answer:
Yes, you can use your own custom text as dummy text in InDesign. You can either manually type the text into the text box or import it from an external file (e.g., a Word document or text file). Additionally, you can copy and paste any relevant content into the text frame to simulate the real content that will eventually appear in the final design.

4. How Do I Replace Dummy Text with Real Content?

Answer:
To replace dummy text with real content, simply copy the actual text from your source (e.g., a Word document or email) and paste it into the text frame. Ensure that the formatting of the real content matches the layout and style of the placeholder text, and make any necessary adjustments to typography, alignment, and spacing to accommodate the new content.

5. How Can I Adjust the Length of Dummy Text in InDesign?

Answer:
InDesign offers flexibility when working with dummy text. If you want to generate more or less text, you can adjust the length of Lorem Ipsum or any other placeholder text using the following methods:

• To generate more text, you can use the Type menu’s Fill with Placeholder Text multiple times or manually add more text.
• For custom text, simply add or delete characters, words, or sentences to match the approximate length needed for your layout.

6. Can I Control the Type of Dummy Text Used in InDesign?

Answer:
InDesign primarily uses Lorem Ipsum as its default dummy text, but you can customize this by importing your own text. You can either paste in text that reflects your design’s specific content (e.g., product descriptions or headlines) or use text generated from external tools like Lipsum generators for varying types of placeholder text.

7. How Do I Adjust the Formatting of Dummy Text?

Answer:
Once you’ve inserted your dummy text, you can easily adjust its formatting. To modify font, size, color, and other text properties, highlight the text and use the Character panel (Window > Type & Tables > Character) or the Paragraph panel (Window > Type & Tables > Paragraph). You can change the font family, size, line spacing (leading), tracking, and more to ensure that the dummy text mimics your intended final content.

8. What’s the Purpose of Dummy Text in InDesign?

Answer:
The primary purpose of dummy text in InDesign is to act as a placeholder that allows you to focus on the design elements of your layout before the actual content is ready. It helps you visualize how text will fit into your design, adjust typography and spacing, and ensure that the layout accommodates different text lengths and formats without distractions from the content itself.

9. Can Dummy Text Help with Layout Decisions?

Answer:
Yes, dummy text plays a key role in layout decisions. It helps you test how text will behave in the design—whether it fits in the designated space, how it interacts with images, and how it affects the overall flow of the page. By using dummy text, you can make informed decisions about typography, alignment, text box sizes, margins, and more to ensure the final design works well with real content.

10. Is There a Shortcut to Insert Dummy Text in InDesign?

Answer:
Yes, there is a keyboard shortcut for quickly adding dummy text in InDesign. After selecting a text frame, press Shift + Ctrl + Alt + L (Windows) or Shift + Command + Option + L (Mac). This will instantly insert Lorem Ipsum placeholder text into the selected frame, helping you streamline your design process.

11. What Should I Do If My Dummy Text Overflows in a Text Frame?

Answer:
If your dummy text overflows beyond the text frame, you’ll see a small red plus sign (+) in the lower-right corner of the text box. To fix this, you can:

• Resize the text box by dragging the handles to accommodate the text.
• Link the text frame to another frame (by clicking the red plus sign) to allow the text to flow to the next frame.
• Adjust the font size, leading, or paragraph spacing to fit the text within the desired area.

Conclusion

Using dummy text in InDesign is an essential technique for designers looking to focus on the visual aspects of their layout before the actual content is available. Whether you are designing a magazine, brochure, website, or any other type of publication, placeholder text provides the flexibility to perfect your design without the distraction of unfinished or incomplete content.

By following the steps and tips outlined in this article, you can generate and use dummy text effectively in your InDesign projects. Remember to use dummy text strategically to avoid clutter, maintain consistency, and ensure that your design is functional and professional. Whether you’re working with Lorem Ipsum or custom-generated text, it’s important to replace the placeholder text with real content as soon as it’s available to ensure the final layout meets your design goals.

Avoiding common mistakes such as relying too heavily on dummy text or forgetting to adjust for text overflow can help you create more efficient and polished designs. Also, testing your layout with various amounts of text and adjusting it for different content formats will ensure that your design works well with both short and long text.

Lastly, be sure to check your text alignment, spacing, and flow regularly. These small details can make a big difference in the final quality of your design, and getting them right early on will save you time when replacing the dummy text with real content.

By incorporating these best practices, you’ll have a smoother design process and produce more professional-looking InDesign projects, whether for print or digital media. Remember, dummy text is a tool that helps you focus on what truly matters—creating a design that is both visually appealing and functional.